Edward Prince Furniture Design - Creativity - Design thinking

Cognitivist Theory
The selective perception of problems has exercised the minds of many design methodologists seeking to devise ways of broadening designer’s perceptions. We would be well on our way to understanding the design process if we could understand the forces and operations responsible for switching our attention throughout a problem or allowing us to re-organise our perceptions in new ways.

Cognitive psychology accepts that information is actively reorganised and reconstructed in the memory rather than passively recorded and recalled; it follows that something must control this process. Research indicates this process is not controlled by one thing but a number of ‘agents’ each one responsible for a relatively simple goal.

Cognitivist theory sees human beings as adaptable and intelligent organisms. It deals with process and operational function, stressing the influence on which -a problems context is perceived, on the thought process itself. We are not neutral or passive when we experience incoming information. Instead some parts are selected for attention at the expense of others and this is recorded and reformulated in complex ways.

Cognitivist theory draws many parallels between thought and perception both of which are core elements in the design process. Primary thought initially provides an overview of a situation, however it is secondary thought where the work is done. These processes have to be learnt and developed, they are dependant upon what is already memorised and the way material has been organised in the primary processing. Attention in perception and thought is seen as responsible for directing our thoughts and is thus crucial to problem solving.

The role perception plays in the formation of ideas
Perception is possibly the most important element in design thinking except for technical matters. (This is discussed in detail in the perception section on creativity) Pattern formation relies upon the way we choose to look at something. The ability to group and classify things by identifying points of difference allows us to make certain predictions and judgements on properties and qualities. These predictions and judgements are the essential building blocks upon which ideas are formed, therefore the richer these building blocks the richer the potential of the ideas.

Directing and Enhancing Perception
We always have a choice of what to focus attention on and the different ways to interpret or think about whatever is focused upon. Designers constantly select what they need to be aware of, the majority of the time this is subconscious and depends upon the demands on our attention whether we are looking at plans or strolling along the beach.

William Gordon developer of the creative thinking technique 'Synectics' uses two basic perceptual modes involved in problem definition; making the familiar strange and making the strange familiar. modes common to many creative thinking tools The natural tendency of a person when faced with a strange situation is to reduce it to categories, fitting it into an accepted pattern. This process is economic but leads to stereotyped thinking. Basic novelty demands a fresh viewpoint, a new way of looking at the problem. Most problems are not new. The challenge is to view the problem in a new way.

Learning and Developing Spatial relations.
Psychologists tell us that spatial perception is not the perception of space as such but the relationship between objects in space. These spatial perceptions are largely learned and develop from infancy. Babies for example are believed to first know the world through direct physical contact, touching and tasting it. As the baby develops it learns how objects occupy space and begins to understand the size of objects in relation to the human body. The child develops the ability to use its own body as a measuring device to understand the size of its world. This is true for not only comprehending size but also location, shape, quantity, direction, interval time and movement.

Spatial elements like size distance and order are understood by comparison to a known standard and the basic standard for everyone is the human body. We also gain meaning from kinetic and tactile qualities, position and sequence as well as shape. there are two types of spatial skills. The first is visual-spatial; this refers to sight discriminating differences. Babies learn that one thing is nearer than another by discerning the spatial meaning of overlap and atmospheric perspective. The second is Motor-spatial, this refers to making the body move accurately and smoothly within space.

Three cues to spatial relationships are height in plane, relative size and focus. The cue from the height in plane results from the way the eye normally scans near and far objects. The eye usually scans upward as it proceeds into the distance. Relative size refers to objects of the same size appear smaller in the distance. Focus refers to the inability of the eye to focus on near and far objects simultaneously; the mind capitalises on this physiological limitation to distinguish the relation between objects in space.

An interesting aspect of spatial perception is that when we view an object we rarely comprehend its true shape, rather a perceived shape based upon assumptions of the overall form. Objects are not usually viewed head on, most likely these are seen obliquely. Consequently, most shapes are seen as distorted, producing a false perceptual reality. Circles appear as ellipses. Rectangles appear to be trapezoids. Moreover as the viewpoint changes every shape changes. The illustration shows how our understanding of a simple cube is dependent on prior knowledge we know they are both cubes yet what we see is definitely not a cube.

Perceptual reality is governed by object consistency, combining what you know with what you see, and knowing this is poly-sensory. In contrast optical reality is only visual. The optical image of an object is the pattern of colour seen by the eye. The dissonant interplay between the changing images of optical reality and the constant images of perceptual reality provide excellent opportunities for seeing. The cubes above illustrate this phenomenon, the eye struggles to recognise the wire cube interpreting it as a polygon or triangles, yet easily identifies the solid cube despite none of the sides actually being squares.

Although we rarely view objects head on, we always perceive them this way. In every day perceptual reality, circles are circles and rectangles perceived as rectangles. The graphic representation of perceptual reality is known as orthographic projection, a method of drawing very commonly used amongst designers. This allows front, top, side and cross sectional views of the whole object to be represented two-dimensionally. Perspective drawing is the graphic equivalent of optical reality.

Although seeing allows endless innovation, it is also limited. To break beyond its limitations men have developed ways to expand visions and boundaries: for instance the perspective system of renaissance art, multi-viewpoint perspective of the cubists. Abstract ways of seeing that divest imagery of its representational content, centring visual attention on aesthetic and sensory qualities by using colour, texture, line, shape and space. Science and technology have provided ways of seeing that ranges from telescopes and microscopes to innumerable forms of television, photography and computer aided graphics. Most importantly sensory perception is limited by what we know. When our knowledge is incorrect, we see illusions. Visual discovery is far freer in relation to inner vision than sensory perception and it is these forms of perception that creative designers will find the richest sources of creativity.

The Relationship between Analysis and Synthesis
Once perceptual potential has been identified the second stage of design is to ascertain the possibilities within the potential that has been identified. This stage involves the designer studying, analysing, questioning and researching. Then continuing to generate ideas based upon an enhanced awareness of the problems environment. Aitkin (1986) found the process of synthesis and analysis to be separate logical processes and his designers were constantly both generating new goals and redefining constraints. The conclusion drawn was that, analysis is a part of all phases of design and synthesis begins very early in the process.

Questioning and Information Gathering
Analysis of a situation can be approached in two different ways. Firstly, ‘questioning’ which involves breaking down the problem’s complexity into component patterns that form the whole Secondly, ‘evaluation’ which involves looking for patterns in the situation without acknowledging their role. Markus (1969) lists four basic sources of information available in a design decision-making situation: the designers’ own experience, others experience, existing research and new research. In the beginning of design projects requiring fresh creative thinking, the most important questions have to do with the definition of the problem. The way we state a problem can have a crucial impact on the way we attempt to solve it.

Not all questions are productive and have been broken into five categories, each with different functions: questions that 1. cause attention, 2. give information, 3. provoke thinking, 4. conclude and 5. get information. There are a number of techniques for asking the right type of questions. Socratic questioning involves the following six forms of questioning each able to direct thinking towards a different element of the problem;

1. Questions about questions
2. Probing for implications and consequences
3. Gathering viewpoints and perspectives
4. Establishing reason and evidence
5. Probing assumptions
6. Clarification of information 

Each of these different forms of questioning can take the form of a closed question to focus thinking or open questions to expand thinking. The most productive type of questioning often begins with the words in the poem by Rudyard Kipling (1903).

I Keep Six Honest Serving Men
I keep six honest serving men
They taught me all I knew
Their names are What and Why and When
and How and Where and Who

Rudyard Kipling

What should be remembered is that the most creative designers are inherently curious and that that implicitly or explicitly, creativity always begins with a question… The quality of the creativity is determined by the quality of the questions. Creative design involves generating many ideas and the only way to generate many ideas is to start with a lot of new questions

Synthesis, Pattern Formation and Gestalt
Pattern seeking is a natural and important part of every act of visual thought. Identification of a pattern is the first step of a two step process. McKim (1980) argues the process is to pattern then analyse. Initially, perceiving an unclear pattern; then according to interest, analysing the initial pattern for details. This process of making a whole from parts is a core element of creative visual thinking and is characterised by flexible pattern seeking. By contrast, the mental model or stereotype image is essentially a rigid, conventional and underdeveloped visual pattern.

Developing the facility to connect the unconnected, seeing relationships that others miss is a process that for many people is a rich source of creativity. Leonardo De Vinci suggested looking at the stains of walls, fire ashes, shapes of clouds, patterns in the mud or similar places. He found that the brain can't deliberately concentrate on two separate objects or ideas, no matter how dissimilar, without forming a connection between them.

Creative insights can result from imagining comparisons, similarities and differences between parallel facts and events in different fields. Why is X like Y? If X works in a certain way, why can’t Y work in a similar way? An idea from one world is used to create a new idea or creative solution to a problem in another world. When imagining comparisons and similarities between dissimilar subjects and events in different worlds the mind looks for cues and suggestions to make the comparisons meaningful by drawing an analogy between the two, the basics of gestalt.

Gestalt Theory
These theories concentrate on processes and organisation rather than mechanisms. The most famous example is the Rorschach inkblot test (Figure. 2.16) used by psychotherapists and Jungian analysts to discover the subconscious interests of their patients, by analysing how visual patterns are interpreted for meaning.

Rorschach inkblot test

Wertheimer (1959) saw problem solving as grasping the structural relationships of a situation and reorganising them until a way to the solution is perceived. He maintained that this mental reorganisation of the situation is achieved by applying various mental modes of attack. Many popular creativity tools are suited to this structure: random words, analogies, alternative viewpoints and combining concepts.

Gestalt psychology holds that perception inherently acts as an active force that draws sensory imagery together into a holistic pattern or ‘gestalten’. This enables the designer to perceive sources of inspiration, how objects are seen as a whole, and their relationship to its environment, manipulating its visual structure accordingly. According to this view, every perceptual image consists of more than the sum of its parts; it also possesses a patterning force that holds the pattern together. Gestalt theory argues that perception obeys an innate urge toward simplification by logically connecting complex stimuli into simpler groups. This pattern formation may be by proximity, similarity or direction. Designers will consciously group shape or forms, for example, to obtain an appropriate pattern, balance or emphasis.

The pattern, or gestalt, that you perceive in a problem is strongly influenced by the way you attempt to solve the problem. The stereotyped thinker works with the first pattern that he sees almost invariably a conventional one. The creative thinker re-centres his perception of the same problem by regrouping it into a variety of patterns. An effective way of seeing is to analyse, form a pattern then re-pattern. In the pattern-seeking mode, you are better able to choose what is worth observing. In addition, when focusing on patterns, the eye is more apt to catch changes, differences, and the unexpected. Pattern seeking and analytical seeing are the two basic phases of seeing. By cycling back and forth between the two, the visual and mental capabilities are fully exercised.

Man’s ability to find meaningful wholes in visual imagery is complemented by his capacity to analyse, to divide wholes into parts. To see fully and creatively, both patterning and analytical abilities need to be developed. If a normal tendency is to analyse imagery, to dwell upon and develop details, then practice seeing the gestalt that coheres parts into a unified whole or patterns and groupings that do not contribute to the pattern.

Puzzles and Building Blocks as Stimulation
The importance that pattern recognition plays in the mental processes adopted by creative individuals should not be ignored. This skill may develop through the recognition of natural, mathematical, or geometric patterns. Typically, this includes things like playing chess, or other strategy games. Assembling, jigsaw puzzles, construction kits or geometric blocks. Playing with some of the many different puzzles both two and three-dimensional that are available will increase this ability. The interest in puzzle and pattern formation can even include designing puzzles. Robert Root-Bernstein reported that whilst writing his book ‘Sparks of Genius’ he was struck by how many eminent people in every field are puzzle addicts.

Frank Lloyd Wright regarded his most important influence in childhood as being a set of Frobel blocks. Wright stated.

“The Maple wood blocks…all are in my fingers today. That early childhood experience with the straight line; the flat plane, the square, the triangle, the circle! If I wanted more, the square modified by the triangle gave the hexagon, Adding thickness, getting “sculpture” thereby the square became the cube, the triangle the tetrahedron, the circle the sphere… the virtue of all this lay in the awakening of the child mind to the rhythmic structure of nature.. giving the child a sense of innate cause and effect otherwise far beyond child comprehension. I soon became susceptible to constructive pattern evolving in everything I saw. I learned to see this way and when I did, I did not want to draw casual incidentals to nature. I wanted to design.”

Frobel blocks and the teaching theories behind then found great favour with the Bauhaus and other influential teaching institutions of design. In addition to pattern formation skills: building, modelling, movement, manipulation all contribute to the further development of spatial awareness

Types of Pattern Formation
Perception is a pattern-seeking process that is closely aligned to thinking and not a passive taking-on process. This active and constructive process involves closure, which works in two ways. Firstly by filling in incomplete patterns and secondly by finding a desired pattern embedded in distracting surroundings.

Pattern Seeking Strategies.

Filling in
The picture shows something recognisable. The objective is to identify what it is?

Categorising
Four of the five shapes form a pattern. The objective is to find which is the odd one out?

Finding
The grid follows a pattern. The objective is to find out which of the hexagons fits the space to complete the pattern

Sequencing
The objective is to establish which of the three patterns is next in the following sequence of pattern?

The pattern-seeking nature of perception is so active because the mind instinctively tries to find meaningful patterns. This pattern matching can proceed either through detail-by-detail comparison, or through seeing a desired pattern in a whole. The world we create is invented through this visual spatial operation. Looked at on a rudimentary level we discover everything in our environment by recognising common features. On a rigorous level visual categorisation is at the core of much scientific discovery as well as the ability to complete patterns